Figures

Figure 1.1

Speciescape, in which the size of individual organisms is approximately proportional to the number of described species in the higher taxon that it represents.

Figure 1.2

A mature larva of the palm weevil, Rhynchophorus phoenicis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) — a traditional food item in central Angola, Africa.

Figure 1.3

A delicacy of the Australian Aborigines — a witchety (or witjuti) grub, a caterpillar of a wood moth (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) that feeds on the roots and stems of witjuti bushes (certain Acacia species).

Figure 2.1

The general structure of insect cuticle; the enlargement above shows details of the epicuticle.

Figure 2.2

Structure of part of a chitin chain, showing two linked units of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine.

Figure 2.3

The ultrastructure of cuticle (from a transmission electron micrograph).

Figure 2.4

A specialized worker, or replete, of the honeypot ant, Camponotus inflatus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), which holds honey in its distensible abdomen and acts as a food store for the colony.

Figure 2.5

The cuticular pores and ducts on the venter of an adult female of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).

Figure 2.6

The four basic types of cuticular protuberances: (a) a multicellular spine; (b) a seta, or trichoid sensillum; (c) acanthae; and (d) microtrichia.

Figure 2.7

Types of body segmentation.

Figure 2.8

The major body axes and the relationship of parts of the appendages to the body, shown for a sepsid fly.

Figure 2.9

Lateral view of the head of a generalized pterygote insect.

Figure 2.10

Frontal view of the head and dissected mouthparts of an adult of the European earwig, Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera: Forficulidae).

Figure 2.11

Frontal view of the head of a worker honey bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae), with transverse section of proboscis showing how the “tongue” (fused labial glossae) is enclosed within the sucking tube formed from the maxillary galae and labial palps.

Figure 2.12

Mouthparts of the cabbage white or cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae).

Figure 2.13

Head and mouthparts of a thrips, Thrips australis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).

Figure 2.14

Head and mouthparts of a sucking louse, Pediculus (Phthiraptera: Anoplura: Pediculidae).

Figure 2.15

Head and mouthparts of a human flea, Pulex irritans (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae):

Figure 2.16

The mouthparts and feeding currents of a mosquito larva of Anopheles quadrimaculatus (Diptera: Culicidae).

Figure 2.17

Some types of insect antennae:

Figure 2.18

Diagrammatic lateral view of a wing-bearing thoracic segment, showing the typical sclerites and their subdivisions.

Figure 2.19

The hind leg of a cockroach, Periplaneta americana (Blattodea: Blattidae), with enlargement of ventral surface of pretarsus and last tarsomere.

Figure 2.20

Nomenclature for the main areas, folds, and margins of a generalized insect wing.

Figure 2.21

A generalized wing of a neopteran insect (any living winged insect other than Ephemeroptera and Odonata), showing the articulation and the Kukalová-Peck nomenclatural scheme of wing venation.

Figure 2.22

The left wings of a range of insects showing some of the major wing modifications:

Figure 2.23

The female abdomen and ovipositor:

Figure 2.24

Male external genitalia.

Figure 3.1

Dissections of (a) a female American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (Blattodea: Blattidae), and (b) a male black field cricket, Teleogryllus commodus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae).

Figure 3.2

Muscle attachments to body wall:

Figure 3.3

A ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Carabus) walking in the direction of the broken line.

Figure 3.4

Direct flight mechanisms: thorax during (a) upstroke and (b) downstroke of the wings. Indirect flight mechanisms:

Figure 3.5

Diagram of a simple reflex mechanism of an insect.

Figure 3.6

The central nervous system of various insects showing the diversity of arrangement of ganglia in the ventral nerve cord.

Figure 3.7

Mediolongitudinal section of an immature cockroach of Periplaneta americana (Blattodea: Blattidae) showing internal organs and tissues.

Figure 3.8

The main endocrine centers in a generalized insect.

Figure 3.9

Schematic diagram of a well-developed circulatory system:

Figure 3.10

Schematic diagram of a generalized tracheal system seen in a transverse section of the body at the level of a pair of abdominal spiracles.

Figure 3.11

Some basic variations in the open (a-c) and closed (d-f) tracheal systems of insects.

Figure 3.12

The four major categories of insect feeding specialization.

Figure 3.13

Generalized insect alimentary canal showing division into three regions.

Figure 3.14

Preoral and anterior foregut morphology in (a) a generalized orthopteroid insect and (b) a xylem-feeding cicada.

Figure 3.15

Longitudinal section through the anterior body of a caterpillar of the cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae).

Figure 3.16

Generalized scheme of the endo-ectoperitrophic circulation of digestive enzymes in the midgut.

Figure 3.17

Schematic diagram of a generalized excretory system showing the path of elimination of wastes.

Figure 3.18

Schematic diagram of the organs in the excretory system of the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera: Acrididae).

Figure 3.19

Molecules of the three common nitrogenous excretory products.

Figure 3.20

Comparison of generalized (a) female and ( b) male reproductive systems.

Figure 4.1

Longitudinal section of a trichoid sensillum showing the arrangement of the three associated cells.

Figure 4.2

Proprioceptors:

Figure 4.3

Longitudinal section of a scolopidium, the basic unit of a chordotonal organ.

Figure 4.4

Tympanal organs of a katydid, Decticus (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae):

Figure 4.5

The singing burrow of a mole cricket, Scapteriscus acletus (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae), in which the singing male sits with his head in the bulb and tegmina raised across the throat of the horn.

Figure 4.6

The antennae of a male moth of Trictena atripalpis (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae):

Figure 4.7

Location of pheromone-emitting female by male moth tacking upwind.

Figure 4.8

A pair of queen butterflies, Danaus gilippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae), showing aerial “hairpencilling” by the male.

Figure 4.9

Longitudinal sections through simple eyes:

Figure 4.10

Details of the compound eye:

Figure 4.11

The flash patterns of males of a number of Photinus firefly species (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), each of which generates a distinctive pattern of signals in order to elicit a response from their conspecific females.

Figure 5.1

Males of the Arctic fly Rhamphomyia nigrita (Diptera: Empididae) hunt for prey in swarms of Aedes mosquitoes (lower mid-right of drawing) and carry the prey to a specific visual marker of the swarm site (left of drawing).

Figure 5.2

Relationship between length of horn and body size (thorax width) of male scarabs of Onthophagus taurus.

Figure 5.3

Two males of Phytalmia mouldsi (Diptera: Tephritidae) fighting over access to the oviposition site at the larval substrate visited by females.

Figure 5.4

Posterior ends of a pair of copulating milkweed bugs, Oncopeltus fasciatus (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae).

Figure 5.5

Species-specificity in part of the male genitalia of three sibling species of Drosophila (Diptera: Drosophilidae).

Figure 5.6

Spermatophores lying within the bursae of the female reproductive tracts of moth species from four different genera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

Figure 5.7

Males of three species of the water-strider genus Rheumatobates, showing species-specific antennal and leg modifications (mostly flexible setae).

Figure 5.9

Oviposition by a South African ladybird beetle, Chilomenes lunulata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae).

Figure 5.8

A copulating pair of stink or shield bugs of the genus Poecilometis (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae).

Figure 5.10

The generalized structure of a libelluloid dragonfly egg (Odonata: Corduliidae, Libellulidae).

Figure 5.11

A female of the parasitic wasp Megarhyssa nortoni (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) probing a pine log with her very long ovipositor in search of a larva of the sirex wood wasp, Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae).

Figure 5.12

Tip of the ovipositor of a female of the black field cricket, Teleogryllus commodus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), split open to reveal the inside surface of the two halves of the ovipositor.

Figure 5.13

A schematic diagram of the hormonal regulation of reproductive events in insects.

Figure 6.1

Schematic drawing of the life cycle of a non-biting midge (Diptera: Chironomidae, Chironomus) showing the various events and stages of insect development.

Figure 6.2

The life cycle of a hemimetabolous insect, the southern green stink bug or green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), showing the eggs, nymphs of the five instars, and the adult bug on a tomato plant.

Figure 6.3

Life cycle of a holometabolous insect, a bark beetle, Ips grandicollis, showing the egg, the three larval instars, the pupa, and the adult beetle.

Figure 6.4

Stages in the development of the wings of the cabbage white or cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae).

Figure 6.5

Embryonic development of the scorpionfly Panorpodes paradoxa (Mecoptera: Panorpodidae):

Figure 6.6

Examples of larval types. Polypod larvae:

Figure 6.7

Examples of pupal types.

Figure 6.8

The nymphal-imaginal molt of a male dragonfly of Aeshna cyanea (Odonata: Aeshnidae).

Figure 6.9

Schematic diagram of the classical view of endocrine control of the epidermal processes that occur in molting and metamorphosis in an endopterygote insect.

Figure 6.10

Diagrammatic view of the changing activities of the epidermis during the fourth and fifth larval instars and prepupal (= pharate pupal) development in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) in relation to the hormonal environment.

Figure 6.11

Growth and development in a marine midge, Telmatogeton (Diptera: Chironomidae), showing increases in:

Figure 6.12

Age-specific oviposition rates of three predators of cotton pests, Chrysopa sp. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), Micromus tasmaniae (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae), and Nabis kinbergii (Hemiptera: Nabidae), based on physiological time above respective development thresholds of 10.5°C, —2.9°C, and 11.3°C.

Figure 6.13

Solitary and gregarious females of the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae).

Figure 6.14

Flow diagram depicting the derivation of the “ecoclimatic index” (EI) as the product of population growth index and four stress indices.

Figure 6.15

Modeled distribution for Austrochlus species (Diptera: Chironomidae) based on presence data.

Figure 7.1

A cladogram showing the relationships of four species, A, B, C, and D, and examples of (a) the three monophyletic groups, (b) two of the four possible (ABC, ABD, ACD, BCD) paraphyletic groups, and (c) one of the four possible (AC, AD, BC, an d BD) polyphyletic groups that could be recognized based on this cladogram.

Figure 7.2

Cladogram of postulated relationships of extant hexapods, based on combined morphological and nucleotide sequence data. Italicized names indicate paraphyletic taxa.

Figure 7.3

Cladogram of postulated relationships of early-branching hexapod orders, based on morphological data.

Figure 7.4

Cladogram of postulated relationships within Dictyoptera, based on combined morphological and nucleotide sequence data.

Figure 7.5

Cladogram of postulated relationships within Hemiptera, based on combined morphological and nucleotide sequence data.

Figure 7.6

Cladogram of postulated relationships of Antliophora, based on a combination of morphological and nucleotide sequence data.

Figure 7.7

Cladogram of postulated relationships of selected lepidopteran higher taxa, based on morphological data.

Figure 8.1

The geological history of insects in relation to plant evolution.

Figure 8.2

Reconstruction of Stenodictya lobata (Palaeodictyoptera: Dictyoneuridae).

Figure 8.3

Stylized tracheal system.

Figure 8.4

Appendages of hypothetical primitive Palaeozoic (left of each diagram) and modern (right of each diagram) pterygotes (winged insects):

Figure 8.5

Area cladogram showing phylogenetic relationships of hypothetical insect taxa with taxon names replaced by their areas of endemism in the Hawai’ian archipelago.

Figure 9.1

Diagrammatic view of a soil profile showing some typical litter and soil insects and other hexapods.

Figure 9.2

Fossorial fore legs of:

Figure 9.3

A plume-shaped tunnel excavated by the bark beetle Scolytus unispinosus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) showing eggs at the ends of a number of galleries; enlargement shows an adult beetle.

Figure 9.4

Underside of the thorax of the beetle Henoticus serratus (Coleoptera: Cryptophagidae) showing the depressions, called mycangia, which the beetle uses to transport fungal material that inoculates new substrate on recently burnt wood.

Figure 9.5

A pair of dung beetles of Onthophagus gazella (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) filling in the tunnels that they have excavated below a dung pad.

Figure 9.6

The fungus gardens of the leaf-cutter ant, Atta cephalotes (Formicidae), require a constant supply of leaves.

Figure 10.1

A stonefly nymph (Plecoptera: Gripopterygidae) showing filamentous anal gills.

Figure 10.2

The life cycle of the mosquito Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae):

Figure 10.3

A male water beetle of Dytiscus (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) replenishing its store of air at the water surface.

Figure 10.4

Dorsal (left) and ventral (right) views of the larva of Edwardsina polymorpha (Diptera: Blephariceridae); the venter has suckers which the larva uses to adhere to rock surfaces in fast-flowing water.

Figure 10.5

Dorsal and lateral views of the larva of a species of water penny (Coleoptera: Psephenidae).

Figure 10.6

Portable larval cases of representative families of caddisflies (Trichoptera):

Figure 10.7

A caddisfly larva (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) in its retreat; the silk net is used to catch food.

Figure 10.8

The whirligig beetle, Gyretes (Coleoptera: Gyrinidae), swimming on the water surface.

Figure 11.1

Christmas beetles of Anoplognathus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) on the chewed foliage of a eucalypt tree (Myrtaceae).

Figure 11.2

Leaf mines:

Figure 11.3

Plant borers:

Figure 11.4

Feeding in phytophagous Hemiptera:

Figure 11.5

A variety of insect-induced galls:

Figure 11.6

Pie chart showing the possible outcomes of releases of alien phytophagous organisms against invasive plants for the biological control of these weeds.

Figure 11.7

Anatomy and pollination of a tea-tree flower, Leptospermum (Myrtaceae):

Figure 11.8

A male hawkmoth of Xanthopan morgani praedicta (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) feeding from the long floral spur of a Malagasy star orchid, Angraecum sesquipedale:

Figure 11.9

An ant of Rhytidoponera tasmaniensis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) carrying a seed of Dillwynia juniperina (Fabaceae) by its elaiosome (seed appendage).

Figure 11.10

Two myrmecophytes showing the domatia (hollow chambers) that house ants and the food resources available to the ants:

Figure 11.11

A tuber of the epiphytic myrmecophyte Myrmecodia beccarii (Rubiaceae), cut open to show the chambers inhabited by ants.

Figure 11.12

A pitcher of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) cut open to show fly inquilines in the fluid:

Figure 12.1

First-instar nymphs of the subsocial aphid Pseudoregma alexanderi (Hemiptera: Hormaphidinae):

Figure 12.2

Cladogram showing probable relationships among selected aculeate Hymenoptera to depict the multiple origins of sociality (SOL, solitary; SUB, subsocial; EU, eusocial).

Figure 12.3

Worker bees from three eusocial genera, from left, Bombus, Apis, and Trigona (Apidae: Apinae), superficially resemble each other in morphology, but they differ in size and ecology, including their pollination preferences and level of eusociality.

Figure 12.4

The hind leg of a worker honey bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae):

Figure 12.5

Development of the honey bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae), showing the factors that determine differentiation of the queen-laid eggs into drones, workers, and queens (on the left) and the approximate developmental times (in days) and stages for drones, workers, and queens (on the right).

Figure 12.6

The nest of the common European wasp, Vespula vulgaris (Hymenoptera: Vespidae):

Figure 12.7

Weaver ants of Oecophylla making a nest by pulling together leaves and binding them with silk produced by larvae that are held in the mandibles of worker ants.

Figure 12.8

Developmental pathways of the termite Nasutitermes exitiosus (Isoptera: Termitidae).

Figure 12.9

A “magnetic” mound of the debris-feeding termite Amitermes meridionalis (Isoptera: Termitidae) showing:

Figure 12.10

Section through the mound nest of the African fungus-farming termite Macrotermes natalensis (Isoptera: Termitidae) showing how air circulating in a series of passageways maintains favorable culture conditions for the fungus at the bottom of t he nest (a) and for the termite brood (b).

Figure 12.11

Relatedness of a given worker to other possible occupants of a hive.

Figure 13.1

The basic spectrum of predator foraging and prey defense strategies, varying according to costs and benefits in both time and energy.

Figure 13.2

An antlion of Myrmeleon (Neuroptera: Myrmeleontidae):

Figure 13.3

Distal part of the leg of a mantid showing the opposing rows of spines that interlock when the tibia is drawn upwards against the femur.

Figure 13.4

Ventrolateral view of the head of a dragonfly nymph (Odonata: Aeshnidae: Aeshna) showing the labial “mask”:

Figure 13.5

Encapsulation of a living larva of Apanteles (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) by the hemocytes of a caterpillar of Ephestia (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

Figure 13.6

Two examples of the ovipositional behavior of hymenopteran hyperparasitoids of aphids:

Figure 13.7

Steps in host selection by the hyperparasitoid Alloxysta victrix (Hymenoptera: Figitidae).

Figure 13.8

Comparisons of louse and host phylogenetic trees:

Figure 13.9

An example of the regular cycling of numbers of predators and their prey: the aquatic planktonic predator Chaoborus (Diptera: Chaoboridae) and its cladoceran prey Daphnia (Crustacea).

Figure 14.1

The basic spectrum of prey defense strategies and predator foraging, varying according to costs and benefits in both time and energy.

Figure 14.2

Pale and melanic (carbonaria) morphs of the peppered moth Biston betularia resting on:

Figure 14.3

A leaf-mimicking katydid, Mimetica mortuifolia (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), in which the fore wing resembles a leaf even to the extent of leaf-like venation and spots resembling fungal mottling.

Figure 14.4

The eyed hawkmoth, Smerinthus ocellatus (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae).

Figure 14.5

The distasteful and warningly colored caterpillars of the cinnabar moth, Tyria jacobaeae (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), on ragwort, Senecio jacobaeae.

Figure 14.6

A caterpillar of the orchard butterfly, Papilio aegeus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), with the osmeterium everted behind its head.

Figure 14.7

An aggregation of sawfly larvae (Hymenoptera: Pergidae: Perga) on a eucalypt leaf.

Figure 14.8

Three nymphalid butterflies that are Müllerian co-mimics in Florida:

Figure 14.9

Nest guarding by the European ant Camponotus (Colobopsis) truncatus:

Figure 14.10

Defense by mandible snapping in termite soldiers.

Figure 14.11

Diagram of the major components of the venom apparatus of a social aculeate wasp.

Figure 14.12

Three ant mimics:

Figure 15.1

A tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans (Diptera: Glossinidae), at the commencement of feeding (a) and fully engorged with blood (b).

Figure 16.1

Schematic graphs of the fluctuations of theoretical insect populations in relation to their general equilibrium population (GEP), economic threshold (ET), and economic injury level (EIL).

Figure 16.2

Cumulative increase in the number of arthropod species (mostly insects and mites) known to be resistant to one or more insecticides.

Figure 16.3

Generalized life cycle of an egg parasitoid.

Figure 16.4

The mode of infection of insect larvae by baculoviruses.

Figure 17.1

A diagrammatic pitfall trap cut away to show the inground cup filled with preserving fluid.

Figure 17.2

Pin positions for representative insects:

Figure 17.3

Correct and incorrect pinning:

Figure 17.4

Micropinning with stage and cube mounts:

Figure 17.5

Point mounts:

Figure 17.6

Spreading of appendages prior to drying of specimens: