Figures 12.2


Cladogram showing probable relationships among selected aculeate Hymenoptera to depict the multiple origins of sociality (SOL, solitary; SUB, subsocial; EU, eusocial).
Figures 12.2. Cladogram showing probable relationships among selected aculeate Hymenoptera to depict the multiple origins of sociality (SOL, solitary; SUB, subsocial; EU, eusocial).

The superfamily Apoidea includes the Sphecidae sensu stricto, the Crabronidae (formerly part of a broader Sphecidae), the Ampulicidae (not shown), and all bees, here treated as one family, the Apidae, with several subfamilies (e.g. Apinae, Colletinae, Halictinae; not all solitary groups are shown) of uncertain relationships. Traditionally, bees have been classified in several families, a ranking that is unjustified phylogenetically. Probable relationships within non-social aculeate wasps (e.g. Ampulicidae, Pompilidae, and Rhopalosomatidae) and bees are not depicted. (Adapted from several sources including Gauld & Bolton 1988; Alexander 1992; Brothers 1999; B.N. Danforth, pers. comm.)

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  First-instar nymphs of the subsocial aphid Pseudoregma alexanderi (Hemiptera: Hormaphidinae):
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  Worker bees from three eusocial genera, from left, Bombus, Apis, and Trigona (Apidae: Apinae), superficially resemble each other in morphology, but they differ in size and ecology, including their pollination preferences and level of eusociality.