Acaricides or Miticides
An acaricide or miticide is a pesticide that provides economic control of pest mites and ticks. Mites and ticks are collectively called either acari or acarina. Some products can act as insecticides or fungicides as well as acaricides.
An acaricide is a pesticide used to kill mites and ticks (Table 1). Always check with state and federal authorities to be sure products containing these active ingredients are registered for use. Always read labels carefully and follow the directions completely.
The toxicity of an acaricide is determined by a dose-response curve or a concentration-response curve. Such curves are obtained by exposing test mites or insects to increasing concentrations or doses of the pesticide and recording the resulting mortality after a given time interval. One estimate of toxicity used is the term LD50 (which is the dose required to kill 50% of the test population). The LC50 is the concentration required to kill 50% of the test population. If the dose is introduced through the insect’s mouth it is an oral LD50, if it is introduced through the skin or integument it is a dermal LD50, and if it is introduced through the respiratory system it is the inhalation LD50. A measured dose is applied to an arthropod by inserting a measured amount of toxicant into the gut or by applying a measured amount to the integument. The lower the LD50 or LC50, the more toxic the poison.
An LC50 is obtained when a mite is exposed to a particular concentration of toxicant but the actual amount of toxicant the individual experiences is not determined. For example, if the pesticide is applied to foliage and the mite walks about on the foliage, the actual amount of toxicant the mite is exposed to depends on the activity of the mite, the amount taken up through the integument or by feeding.
Figure 6 shows a concentration-response curve in parts per million (ppm) for the acaricide Omite (propargite) exhibited by adult females from colonies of the Pacific spider mite Tetranychus pacificus. The concentration required to kill 50% of the individuals is the LC50. The two types of F1 females (produced by crossing Chapla males and Bidart females, and vise versa) respond similarly and their concentration-response curves are about midway between those of the resistant (Bidart) and susceptible (Chapla) colonies, which indicates that resistance may involve a semidominant mode of inheritance. The term mode of inheritance describes how the trait is inherited; for example, the resistance can be determined by a single major dominant (only one copy of the gene is required for the mite to express the resistance) or recessive (two copies of the gene are required) gene. Or, the resistance can be a quantitative trait determined by multiple genes of equal and additive effect. In this example, the propargite resistance may be determined a single semidominant gene with modifying genes, but additional tests are required to resolve whether more than one gene actually contributes to this resistance.
Acaricides or Miticides, Figure 6 This is a concentration-response curve showing the responses of a colony of Tetranychus pacificus resistant (Bidart) and susceptible (Chapla) to propargite (Omite). The mortality of adult females at different concentrations has been transformed into a straight line. The concentration-responses of the reciprocal F1 females in crosses between the susceptible and resistant populations are intermediate and similar.
Mode of Entry
A pesticide can enter and kill mites as stomach poisons, contact poisons, and or as fumigants. A systemic acaricide is absorbed into a plant or animal and protects that plant or animal from pests after the pesticide is translocated throughout the plant or animal.
Chemical Structure
Pesticides are classified as organic or inorganic. Inorganic pesticides do not contain the element carbon (but include arsenic, mercury, zinc, sulfur, boron, or fluorine). Most inorganic pesticides have been replaced by organic pesticides.
Source
Organic pesticides include botanicals (natural organic pesticides) produced by plants (such as natural pyrethrums, nicotine, rotenone, essential oils such as those from the neem tree, soybean oil). Essential oils are any volatile oil that gives distinctive odor or flavor to a plant, flower or fruit, such as lavender oil, rosemary oil, or citrus oil. Essential oils have been registered as pesticides since 1947 and at least 24 different ones are available in registered products. These are used as repellants, feeding depressants, insecticides, and miticides. Botanicals have relatively high LD50 values to mammals, so usually are considered safe to humans. Some newer pesticides are derived from microbes, such as avermectin or spinosad.
Synthetic organic pesticides are commonly used in pest management programs and can be separated into groups based on their chemistry. The main groups are: chlorinated hydrocarbons (such as DDT and chlordane, which are banned from use in most parts of the world), organophosphates (such as malathion, parathion, azinphosmethyl), carbamates (carbaryl, propoxur), pyrethroids (permethrin, fenvalerate),and a variety of newer products with very different chemistries including nicitinoids, pyrroles, carbazates, and pyridazinones.
Insecticides as Acaricides
Many insecticides have acaricidal properties. Sometimes an insecticide is more effective as an insecticide than as an acaricide (lower concentrations are required to kill the insect than are required to kill the mite species). Some products are more toxic (often for unknown reasons) to mites than to insects. We think that mites have the same fundamental physiological responses to toxic chemicals as insects, although mite physiology and responses to pesticides have been studied less often. Different mite species appear to respond differently to different products, which could be due to behavioral differences (feeding behavior, location on plant, activity levels), differences in cuticle thickness, differences in detoxification rates, or other biochemical, morphological or behavioral factors. Different formulations also can influence toxicity to different species of both insects and mites.
Many insecticides are effective acaricides (or at least they were before resistance to them developed). For example, many OPs (such as azinphosmethyl, parathion, ethion, dimethoate) were toxic to spider mites until resistance to these products developed. Likewise, carbamates, formamides, and many pyrethroids have both insecticidal and acaricidal properties. Other products have both fungicidal and acaricidal properties. The reasons as to why these products are effective on particular taxonomic groups are generally unknown.
Acaricide Types
Pesticide registrations change frequently so some of the materials listed here may be obsolete. Always check with state and federal authorities to be sure products containing these active ingredients are registered for use. Always read labels carefully and follow the directions completely.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Dienochlor (Trade name = Pentac) is a chlorinated hydrocarbon acaricide with long residual activity. It has been used in greenhouses and on outdoor ornamentals. Pentac cannot be used on food crops and has short residual activity when used outdoors. It has a rapid effect on mites, stopping their feeding within hours. Endosulfan and DDT have also been used as acaricides (as well as insecticides).
Essential Oils
Soybean oil was first registered in 1959 for use as an insecticide and miticide. Three products currently are registered to control mites on fruit trees, vegetables and a variety of ornamentals. Soybean oil is not phytotoxic under most conditions. Many of these oils are approved for organic farming.
Inorganics
Sulfur is a good acaricide and fungicide, although it can be phytotoxic (cause plant injury), especially if plants are not well watered during hot weather. Sulfur is probably the oldest known acaricide. Sulfur (dusts, wettable p owders and flowable formulations) are usually highly effective acaricides for spider mites and rust mites, with two known exceptions.
Spider mites in California vineyards (Tetranychus pacificus and Eotetranychus willamettei) developed resistance to sulfur, probably because sulfur was applied up to 20 times a season over many years to control powdery mildew. After a number of years, these spider mites became pests because they were no longer controlled by the sulfur which had been applied to control powdery mildew. A number of years later, a predatory mite called Metaseiulus occidentalis was demonstrated to have developed a resistance to sulfur. The resistance to sulfur in this natural enemy of spider mites is based on a single major dominant gene; once the predator became resistant to sulfur it became an effective predator of spider mites in San Joaquin Valley vineyards in California.
The resistance to sulfur in M. occidentalis is unusual; even very high rates of sulfur are nontoxic to the resistant populations. Interestingly, populations of this predator collected from nearby almond orchards in California are susceptible to sulfur, indicating that populations are subjected to local selection and evolution. No genetic analyses have been conducted on the resistance to sulfur in the spider mites, so their mode of inheritance to sulfur resistance remains unknown. The biochemical mechanism of resistance is unknown for both spider mites and their predators.
Petroleum Oils
Petroleum oils are excellent insecticides/acaricides/ fungicides for integrated mite management programs and have been used in pest management programs for over 100 years.
Different types of petroleum oils are used with different molecular weights. Most oils used are distillations of petroleum, although some oils derived from plants (sesame, almond, citrus) are used.
Crude petroleum oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with both straight chain and ring molecules. Crude oil is separated into a range of products by distillation and refining. The lightest fractions include gasoline, kerosene, diesel and jet fuel. As these lighter fractions distill or boil, they are separated into different fractions. Spray oils are derived from the lighter lubricating oil fraction and distill at a temperature range of 600 to 900°C.
Currently used petroleum oils in the USA are narrow-range oils and have had the waxes, sulfur, and nitrogen compounds removed. Labels on sprays usually describe the degree to which the sulfur compounds have been removed and the percentage of active oil. The sulfur compounds are likely to cause phytotoxic effects, so the degree of removal of these compounds (called the UR rating) is an important piece of information on the label and commonly is greater than 92%. The composition of oil should be greater than 60%.
Since the mid-1960s, narrow-range horticultural oils have been used both as dormant or summer oil sprays. These highly refined and narrow range petroleum oils rarely cause phytotoxicity and increasingly are used for controlling both insect and mite pests on deciduous trees, citrus, and ornamental trees and shrubs. Oils have a wide range of activity against scales, mites, psyllids, mealybugs, whiteflies, leafhoppers, and eggs of mites, aphids and some Lepidoptera. Heavier dormant sprays are used to control overwintering pests in deciduous trees and vines. Summer oils are used to control pests during the growing season.
Oil kills mites and their eggs by contact. The toxicity appears to be due to suffocation of the pest, although it may also be due to chemical effects. Oils block spiracles, reducing the availability of oxygen and suffocation occurs within 24 h. Penetration and corrosion of tracheae, damage to muscles and nerves may also contribute to the toxicity of oils. Oils are sometimes a repellent to pests. Once the oil dries it is no longer toxic to most natural enemies; thus the very short residual activity of oil makes it a useful material for integrated mite management programs, although it also means that there is no residual toxicity to the pests.
No resistance to oils has been reported in pest arthropods, including mites, perhaps because oils have a relatively short residual activity. Oils are easy to apply, relatively inexpensive, and safe to handle. They are relatively harmless to vertebrates, dissipate quickly after spraying, and leave little or no residue on crops. Oils man be used by organic farmers.
A disadvantage to petroleum oils is that they have little residual activity and kill only upon contact, so thorough and precise coverage is necessary to achieve effective control. Phytotoxicity can occur even with these narrow-range oils, especially if plants are weakened or under moisture stress. Thus, applications should not be made during droughts, or periods of very high temperatures. Some varieties of plants are more susceptible to phytotoxicity than others, so caution should be taken when using oils for the first time on a particular crop or cultivar. Oils are not compatible with sulfur or some other pesticides, causing serious phytotoxicity problems.
Organosulfurs
Tetradifon (Tedion) and propargite (Omite, Komite) are organosulfurs. These products contain sulfur as a central atom with two phenyl rings. Tedion is particularly toxic to mites, but has very low toxicity to insects. Organosulfurs are often ovicidal as well as toxic to active stages. Propargite was used for many years (more than 20) and appeared to some to be immune to the development of resistance in spider mite populations. However, propargite resistance has now developed in many populations of spider mites around the world. Propargite is less toxic to beneficial phytoseiid predators than to pest spider mites, and thus could be used in integrated mite management programs, although at high concentrations it also is toxic to phytoseiid predators.
Organotins
Cyhexatin (Plictran) and fenbutatin-oxide (Vendex) are examples of tin compounds that are primarily acaricides and fungicides. Plictran (cyhexatin) was introduced in 1967 and was widely used for many years before resistance developed in spider mites. Some people had assumed that the organotins were immune to resistance problems. The organotins were useful products because they were more toxic to spider mites than to phytoseiids and thus were very useful in integrated mite management programs. Fenbutatin-oxide (Vendex) is another organotin. These products were taken off the market in the USA due to concerns about safety.
Insecticides with Acaricidal Activity
Organophosphorus Pesticides
The organophosphates (pesticides that include phosphorus) are derived from phosphoric acid and are the most toxic of all pesticides to vertebrates. They are, in fact, related to nerve gases by structure and mode of action.
Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are less persistent in the environment than the organochlorines such as DDT. Organophosphorus pesticides (such as azinphosmethyl, parathion, ethion, demeton, dimethoate) function by inhibiting important enzymes (cholinesterases) in the nervous system. Acetylcholine is the chemical signal that is carried across synapses (where the electrical signal is transmitted across a gap to a muscle or another neuron. After the electrical signal (nerve impulse) has been conducted across the gap by acetylcholine, the cholinesterase enzyme removes the acetylcholine so the circuit won’t be kept on. When OPs poison an organism, the OP attaches to the cholinesterase so it cannot remove the acetylcholine. The circuits then remain on because acetylcholine accumulates. This gives rise to rapid twitching of the voluntary muscles and to paralysis, which is can be lethal if it persists in the vertebrate respiratory system.
Not all OPs are highly toxic to vertebrates; if the phosphorus is modified by esterification (adding oxygen, carbon, sulfur and nitrogen), six different classes of OPs can be produced. Some of these are relatively safe to vertebrates, such as malathion. The use of most OPs is being eliminated in the USA due to the Food Quality Protection Act.
Carbamates
Carbamates (aldicarb, carbofuran, methomyl, propoxur) are derivatives of carbamic acid. The mode of action of carbamates is to inhibit cholinesterase. The carbamates were introduced in the 1950s. Carbaryl (Sevin) is one of the most popular products available to home gardeners for controlling a variety of insect pests and has low mammalian oral and dermal toxicity. Methomyl (Lannate) and aldicarb (Temik) are examples of other carbamates.
Sevin is well known to induce outbreaks of spider mites after applications are made to control other pests. The outbreaks are due to two factors; (i) Sevin kills phytoseiid predators and other natural enemies of spider mites, and (ii) it stimulates reproduction of spider mites, a process called hormoligosis. Even very low doses of Sevin appears to act like a hormone to stimulate reproduction of the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae. It is likely that the use of carbamates also will be eliminated or greatly reduced in the USA due to the Food Quality Protection Act.
Formamides
Formamides include chlorodimeform (Galecron or Fundal), amitraz, and formetanate (Carzol). These products are effective against the eggs of Lepidoptera and also against most stages of mites and ticks. The mode of action of these products is unclear, but thought to be due to the inhibition of monoamine oxidase, which results in the accumulation of compounds called biogenic amines.
Pyrethroids
Many of the pyrethroids have acaricidal activity. Some (such as bioresmethrin, fenpropathrin and bifenthrin) are considered effective acaricides. Unfortunately, pyrethroids usually are very toxic to beneficial arthropods, including phytoseiid predators. These detrimental effects can be very long lasting because the residues persist a long time. Few have been found useful for integrated mite management programs for this reason. Laboratory selection of phytoseiids (Amblyseius fallacis, Metaseiulus occidentalis, Typhlodromus pyri) for resistance to two pyrethroid insecticides has been successful. The pyrethroid-resistant strains were developed for use in apple pest management programs using both laboratory and field selection methods.
Pyrroles
Pyridaben is a novel pyrrole pesticide that works as a mitochondrial electron transport inhibitor to block cellular respiration, causing pests to become uncoordinated and die. Can be used on both insects and mites.
Other Acaricides
Azadirachtin
This is a triterpenoid extracted from the seeds of the neem tree Azadirachta indica. Extracts include a combination of compounds, the proportion of which vary from tree to tree. Such variability in this natural product makes it difficult to predict the precise effect of the product when extracted by local people. Commercial products may be more consistent in their effect because they have been tested to confirm their quality and are blended to achieve a consistent product. Azadirachtin blocks the action of the molting hormone ecdysone.
Avermectin
Avermectin is a natural product containing a macrocyclic lactone glycoside that is a fermentation product of Streptomyces avermitilus, which was isolated from soil. Avermectin is actually a mixture of two homologs, both of which have biological activity. Avermectin has insecticidal and acaricidal properties and is closely related to ivermectin, which kills nematodes.
At appropriate rates, abamectin is less toxic to beneficial phytoseiids than to spider mites; it paralyzes active spider mite stages, but is not toxic to eggs. Avermectin has translaminar activity (meaning it is taken up by the plant tissue and subsequently by spider mites feeding on the plant tissues), but has a short residual toxicity to phytoseiids.
Resistance to this product has been reported in some populations of spider mites. A resistant strain of M. occidentalis was obtained after laboratory selection, suggesting that resistance mechanisms may be present in field populations.
The mode of action of avermectin involves blocking the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the neuromuscular junction. Mites that are exposed to abamectin become paralyzed and, although they do not die immediately, the paralyzed mites do stop feeding.
Clofentezine and Hexythiazox
These are very interesting growth regulators of mites; they kill eggs (ovicides) of spider mites, but not the active stages of spider mites. The products have different chemistries, but both are nontoxic to phytoseiid mite eggs or active stages! In fact, the phytoseiid mite Metaseiulus occidentalis can be fed a diet consisting solely of spider mite eggs that have been killed with these products and the predator females reproduce and their progeny develop normally. This selectivity makes the products particularly useful for integrated mite management programs because predators can be maintained while suppressing spider mite populations. Unfortunately, resistance to these products has developed in spider mite populations in several locations around the world, including Europe and Australia.
Tebufenpyrad
This is a phenoxypyrazole and has been evaluated under the trade name Pyranica in Australia, where it was shown to be useful in integrated mite management programs in apples because it is selective (relatively nontoxic) to phytoseiid predators.
Acaricides and Fungicides
Benomyl is a carbamate that has been used primarily as a fungicide, but also has acaricidal properties. Benomyl is interesting because it acts as a sterilant of phytoseiid predators. Adult phytoseiid females treated with benomyl survive, but they do not deposit eggs. This product apparently disrupts spindle fiber formation in cells and interferes in the synthesis of DNA, resulting in females that are unable to reproduce.
Resistance in Mites
Resistance to pesticides is an increasingly serious problem around the world. Resistance to one or more pesticides has been documented in more than 440 species of insects and mites. Spider mite and tick species have readily developed resistance to all classes of pesticides.
Resistance is a decreased response of a population of animal to a pesticide or control agent as a result of their application. It is an evolutionary or genetic response to selection. Tolerance is an innate ability to survive a given toxicant dose without prior exposure and evolutionary change. Cross resistance is a genetic response to selection with compound A that generates resistance to both compound A and other compounds (B and C). Multiple resistance is resistance to different compounds due to the coexistence of different resistance mechanisms in the same individuals. Multiple resistances usually are generated by sequential or simultaneous selection by more than one type of pesticide.
Methods for Evaluating Resistance
There are a variety of methods available for assessing resistance to pesticides in mites. The test method chosen will depend upon the goals of the researcher. Each method has strengths and weaknesses.
Resistance is a genetically-determined change in the ability to tolerate a pesticide. Therefore, one must have at least two different populations to test — one that is putatively resistant and one that exhibits the normal, wild type response. Unless these two populations can be compared under identical laboratory conditions, it is difficult to document resistance because historical data are of questionable value in assessing whether a population is resistant. This is because it is very difficult to conduct identical bioassays in two different laboratories, even when attempts are made to use the same methods. Small differences in techniques can result in very large differences in toxicity data. For example, spider mites tested on smooth leaves may respond very differently than spider mites tested on the same plant species but on a variety with hairy leaves. Small differences in formulations and temperature also influence responses of mites to pesticides. Small differences in age or feeding status also influence toxicity responses. Most conclusions about resistance should be based on comparative data obtained by the same researcher under identical conditions.
The apparent failure of a product to control a mite population under field conditions is NOT adequate evidence for resistance. Field failure is a reason to investigate further, but field failures can occur for a variety of reasons that have nothing to do with resistance. Failures could occur because the pesticide applicator may have mixed the product improperly, coverage may have been inadequate, the pH of the water used to mix the pesticide could have altered the toxicity of the product, and the product could have been old or degraded due to improper storage.
Slide Dip Bioassays
Slide dip bioassays of adult female spider mites and phytoseiids have been proposed as a standard method for assessing resistance or tolerance. This method involves placing adult female on their backs on to double-sided sticky tape applied to glass microscope slides and dipping the slides into a specific pesticide concentration. This method has the virtue of being relatively rapid and easy to conduct. However, measuring toxicity to adult females after 24 or 48 h is not an appropriate assay for many pesticide types (for example ovicides, growth regulators). Also, the results probably bear little relation to the field toxicity of the product. It is very likely that many products are much more toxic to the mites using this assay than they would be under field conditions, where mites can feed and move around and coverage is rarely complete, so this method may give no information about whether the resistance level induced is relevant to field concentrations used.
Leaf Dip or Leaf Spray Bioassays
Leaf dip or leaf spray bioassays involve placing mites on leaf disks, which are then sprayed or dipped into a specific concentration of pesticide. This type of bioassay provides an exposure that is more similar that the mites would experience under field conditions and it is possible to measure survival, fecundity, and ability to successfully develop on pesticide residues.
Whole Plant Bioassays
This approach, which involves spraying the entire plant, is very realistic, unless the plants (and pesticide residues) are not exposed to sunlight or rain.
Field Tests
Field trials are the most realistic method for assessing resistance, but it can be difficult to determine why the predators or spider mites died (did other tolerant predators fly in and eliminate the pest?). If adequately replicated over time and space, field trials provide very relevant information. The relevance of application method (high or low volume), coverage, and droplet size can be assessed. Unfortunately, field trials are the most expensive to carry out so the methods described above are often used to save time and funds.
Acaricides or Miticides, Table 1 Acaricides (miticides) currently or recently available for general and restricted use to control mites and ticks*
| Name** (chemical type) Some trade names |
General Use (GU)*** Restricted Use (RU) |
Potential use |
|---|---|---|
| Abamectin (avermectin B1a; produced from the bacterium Streptomyces avermitilis) Affirm, Agri-Mek, Avid, vertimec, Zephyr | GU, Class IV (practically nontoxic) | Also an insecticide; affects nervous system and paralyzes insects or mites; used in citrus, pears, nut tree crops |
| Amitraz (triazapentadiene) Acarac, Mitac, Ovidrex,Triatox,Topline | GU, Class III (slightly toxic) | Used in pears, cotton, and on cattle, and hogs to control insects, ticks and mites |
| Azadirachtin (tetranortriterpenoid extracted from the Neem tree) Align, Azatin, Turplex | GU, Class IV | Azadirachtin is similar to insect hormones called ecdysones, which control metamorphosis; also may serve as a feeding deterrent; used to control insects and mites on food, greenhouse crops, ornamentals and turf |
| Bifenazate (carbazate) Floramite | Class IV | Mites on greenhouse, shadehouse, nursery, field, field, landscape and interiorscape ornamentals, not registered in USA for use on food |
| Bifenthrin (pyrethroid) Talstar, Brigade, Capture | RU, Class II (moderately toxic) | Insecticide and acaricide that affects the nervous system and causes paralysis; used on greenhouse ornamentals and cotton |
| Carbaryl (carbamate) Adios, Bugmaser, Crunch, Dicarbam on formulation Hexavin, Karbaspray, Septene Sevin, Tornadao, Thinsec | GU, Class I, II or III, depending | General use pesticide to control insects on citrus, fruits, cotton, forests, lawns, nuts, ornamentals, shade trees, poultry, livestock and pets. Also works as a mollusccide and acaricide |
| Chlorobenzilate (chlorinated hydrocarbon) Acaraben, Akar, Benzilan, Folbex | RU, Class III, may cause tumors in mice | Used for mite control on citrus and in beehives; also kills ticks; use cancelled in USA |
| Chlorfenapyr (pyrrole) Pylon, Pyramite, Pirate | Class I | Used to control spider mites, broad ites, budmites, cyclamen mite, rust mites and some insects. |
| Cinnamon oil (cinnamaldehyde) Cinnamite | Exempt from registration under FIFRA | Broad spectrum miticide/insecticide/fungicide controls or repels pests; could be phytotoxic in some cases; used in ornamentals, shade or nursery trees, vegetables, herbs and spices |
| Citronella oil | Exempt from FIFRA | Repels insects and ticks |
| Demeton-S-Methyl (organophosphate) Meta-Systox, Azotox, Duratox, Mifatox | No longer registered for use in USA; Class I, highly toxic | Systemic and contact insecticide and acaricide, widely used against diverse pests |
| Dicofol (organochlorine) Acarin, Difol, Kelthane, Mitigan | GU, Class II or III, depending on formulation | Miticide used on fruits, vegetables, ornamentals and field crops |
| Dicrotophos (organophosphate) Bidrin, Carbicron, Dicron, Ektafos | RU | Contact systemic pesticide and acaricide used to control sucking, boring and chewing pests on coffee, cotton, rice, pecans; used to control ticks on cattle |
| Dienochlor (organochlorine) Pentac, often formulated with other pesticides | GU, Class III | Contact material used for plant-feeding mites on ornamental shrubs and trees outdoors and in greenhouses; disrupts egg laying of female mites; use cancelled in USA |
| Dinocap (dinitrophenyl) Arathane, Caprane, Dicap, Dikar Karathane, Mildane | GU, Class III | Used as a fungicide and as an acaricide for ticks and mites; use cancelled in USA |
| Disulfoton (organophosphate) Disyston, Disystox, Dithiodemeton, Dithiosystox, Solvigram, Solvirex | RU, Class I, highly toxic | Systemic insecticide and acaricide used to control sucking insects/mites on cotton, tobacco, sugar beets, cole crops, corn, peanuts, wheat, grains, ornamentals, potatoes |
| Endosulfan (chlorinated hydrocarbon) Afidan, Cyclodan, Endocide, Hexasulfan, Phaser, Thiodan, Thionex | RU, Class I | Contact insecticide and acaricide used to control many pests on tea, coffee, fruits, vegetables, grains |
| Ethion (organophosphate) Acithion, Ethanox, Ethiol, Nialate, Tafethion, Vegfru Foxmite | GU, Class II | Insecticide and acaricide used on wide variety of food, fiber and ornamentals, including greenhouse crops, citrus, lawns and turf |
| Eucalyptus oil | Exempt from FIFRA | Repels mites; repels fleas and mosquitoes |
| Fenamiphos (organophosphate) Nemacur, Phenamiphos, Bay 68138 | RU, Class I | A nematicide that has some activity against sucking insects and spider mites |
| Fenbutatin oxide (organotin) Vendex | RU | Miticide used on perennial fruits, eggplant and ornamentals |
| Fenitrothion (organophosphate) Accothion, Cyfen, Dicofen, Fenstan, Folithion, Mep, Metathion, Micromite Pestroy, Sumithion, Verthion | GU | Acaricide and insecticide effective gainst a wide array of pests |
| Formothion (organophosphate) Aflix, Anthio, Sandoz S-6900 | RU, Class II | Systemic and contact insecticide and acaricide, used against spider mites on tree fruits, vines, olives, hops, cereals, sugar cane, rice |
| Hexythiazox (ovicide, growth regulator) Savey | Class III | Ovicide/miticide effective against spider mites on tree fruits, christmas trees, strawberries, hops, peppermint, caneberries |
| Lambda cyhalothrin (pyrethroid) Charge, Excaliber, Granade, Hallmark, Icon, Karate, Matador, Saber, Sentinel | RU, Class II | Insecticide and acaricide used to control a variety of pests in cotton, cereals, hops, ornamentals, potatoes, vegetables; controls ticks |
| Lindane (organochlorine) Agrocide, Benesan, Benexane, BHC, Gammex, Gexane, HCH, Isotox, Kwell, Lindafor, Lintox, Lorexane, Steward | RU, Class II Most uses cancelled in USA because of potential to cause cancer | Insecticide and fumigant; used in lotions, creams and shampoos for control of lice and mites (scabies) in humans |
| Methamidophos (organophosphate) Monitor, Nitofol, Tamaron, Swipe Patrole, Tamanox | RU, Class I | Systemic, residual insecticide/ acaricide/avicide with contact and stomach action, used to control chewing and sucking insects and mites in many crops outside the USA |
| Methidathion (organosphosphate) Somonic, Supracide, Suprathion | RU, Class I | Insecticide and acaricide with stomach and contact action used to control a variety of insects and mites in many crops |
| Methomyl (carbamate) Acinate, Agrinate, Lannate, Lanox, Nudrin, NuBait | RU, Class I | Broad spectrum insecticide and an acaricide to control ticks, acts as a contact and systemic pesticide |
| Mevinphos (organophosphate) Fosdrin, Gesfid, Meniphos, Menite, Mevinox, Mevinphos, Phosdrin, Phosfene | RU, Class I | Insecticide and acaricide effective against a broad spectrum of pests, including mites and ticks; use cancelled in greenhouses |
| Monocrotophos (organophosphate) Azodrin, Bilobran, Monocil 40, Monocron, Nuvacron, Plantdrin | RU, registration in USA withdrawn in 1988 | Systemic and contact insecticide and acaricide |
| Naled (organophosphate) Bromex, Dibrom, Lucanal | GU, Class I | Contact and somach insecticide and acaricide, used against mites in greenhouses |
| Oxamyl (carbamate) | RU, Class I granular form is banned in USA | Insecticide/acaricide/nematacide that controls a broad spectrum of mites, ticks and roundworms on field crops, vegetables, fruits, ornamentals |
| Neem oil Trilogy | - | Broad spectrum fungicide and acaricide in citrus, deciduous fruits and nuts, vegetables, grains |
| Permethrin (pyrethroid) Ambush, Cellutec, Dragnet, Ectiban, Indothrin, Kafil, Kestrel, Pounce, Pramex, Zamlin, Torpedo | Class II or III, depending on formulation RU in agriculture because of adverse effects on aquatic organisms | Broad spectrum used on nut, fruit, vegetable, cotton, ornamentals, mushrooms, potatoes, cereals, in greenhouses, home gardens, on domestic animals |
| Petroleum oils (refined petroleum distillate) Sunspray and others | Class IV | Kills by contact a wide range of mite and insects; complete coverage is essential; may act as a feeding or oviposition deterrent. Phytotoxicity can occur if plants are stressed, especially by lack of water; some plant cultivars are more susceptible than others. Used as dormant and as foliar sprays. |
| Phorate (organophosphate) Agrimet, Geomet, Granutox, Phorate Rampart, Thimenox, Thimet, Vegfru | RU, Class I | Insecticide and acaricide used on pests, including mites, in forests, root and field crops, ornamentals and bulbs |
| Phosalone (organophosphate) | GU, No longer for sale in USA due to carcinogenic effects | Broad spectrum insecticide/acaricide used on deciduous trees, vegetables, cotton. |
| Phosmet (organophosphate) | GU, Class II, some tolerances in foods changed in 1994 by EPA | Broad spectrum insecticide, used to control insect and mites on apples, ornamentals, vines; is used in some dog collars. |
| Propargite (organosulfide) Comite, Omite | GU | Acaricide used in many crops but not USA |
| Rosemary oil (rosemary essential oil) Hexacide | Meets requirements of USDA National Organic Program Exempt from FIFRA | Broad spectrum contact insecticide / miticide used in fruits, nuts, vegetables. Could be phytotoxic on some cultivars. |
| Soybean oil (essential oil) | Low acute toxicity to humans, generally recognized as safe | - |
| Spinosad (macrocyclic lactone) | - | Conserve Broad spectrum insecticide and miticide used on ornamentals and in greenhouses. |
| Sulfur (sulfur) Cosan, Hexasul, Sulflox, Thiolux | GU, Check label for restrictions | Fungicide and acaricide; used to control plant diseases, gall mites, spider mites, used widely in food and feed crops, ornamentals, turf and residential sites; a fertilizer or soil amendment, mixing with oil can cause phytotoxicity |
| Triforine (piperazine derivative) | RU, Class I | Fungicide used on almonds, apples, asparagus, berries, cheeries, hops, ornamentals, peaches, rose; also controls spider mites |
| Wintergreen oil (contains methyl salicylate) | Exempt from FIFRA | Used to control mites (Varroa) in honey bees; causes contact mortality and reduced fecundity when mites feed on syrup |
* The list is based on chemicals currently registered in the USA, which can change as new information regarding environmental impact and human health effects become available. Inclusion in this list does not necessarily indicate that the products are effective acaricides; application methods and resistance levels in individual mite populations can affect efficacy.
** Most have a variety of trade or other names, as well as different formulations, which can affect their toxicity.
*** Restricted Use (RU) means that pesticides may be purchased and used only by certified applicators. Check with specific state regulations for local restrictions.
Abdominal Pumping
